Sport can be broadly defined as a physical activity involving physical exertion and skill (Online, 2010). Physical exertion will require an athlete to produce force to execute such a skill (Rancourt & Hogan, 2009). As force production is relative to the athlete’s strength to perform the biomechanical demands of the skill, the ability to effectively develop this strength through greater understanding of the biomechanical principles that underpin the skill is integral for a strength and conditioning (S&C) coach (Rancourt & Hogan, 2009).
Dynamic Correspondence presents 5 criterion; the amplitude and direction of movement, accentuated region of force production, dynamics of the effort, the rate and time of force production and the regime of muscular work that attempt to describe the relative similarity and thus transfer of a training exercise towards an identified sports skill (Verkhoshansky & Siff, n.d.).
Although the validation of these principles is unclear, Verkhoshansky and Siff, (n.d.) argue that given all sporting movements are specific, the strength exercises used to enhance sporting performance should also be specific to improve the transfer of training effect and thus the dynamic correspondence. Goodwin and Cleather (2016) stress that what makes an exercise specific for sport is dependent on contextual factors relevant to the athlete’s stage of physical development that can evolve on a continuum from general to specific training. This is supported by Baker (1996), who highlighted that the athlete’s needs, training age and subsequent plan dictate what strength exercises (general, special or specific) would be appropriate for optimal vertical jump performance. Contrary to Verkhoshanski’s preference for special strength exercises, a novice athlete may have greater improvements in the vertical jump skill by developing a general strength imposed by a back squat (secondary transfer) (Baker, 1996). However, an experienced athlete with a higher training age may benefit more from a specific strength exercise such as a loaded jump (primary transfer) (Baker, 1996). Based on the criterion, the latter exercise will have a closer correspondence to the skill but does not make it necessarily the best exercise for every athlete to impose specific adaptations associated with an improved vertical jump.
Given that the transfer of training effects can be facilitated in different ways (Goodwin & Cleather 2016), the skill of the coach will need to factor these considerations when applying the criterion to the exercise and skill through validation of the laws of biomechanics. A biomechanical assessment of a bowling action is a comprehensive series of factors (Glazier & Wheat, 2014). A fast bowling action performs multiple planes of motion whilst managing body mass in different phases of performance in an effort to impart maximal velocity to a cricket ball (P. J. Worthington, King, & Ranson, 2013). The split jerk can be broadly characterized as a multi-joint, speed strength olympic lift that involves an athlete explosively driving a barbell into a fixed position overhead with evenly split feet relative to the centre of mass (Stone, Pierce, Sands, & Stone, 2006b). The split jerk can be used as a modality to illicit rapid proximal to distal firing patterns for projectiling implements in sport - that is, where more proximal larger muscles groups and joints overcome / produce high force (i.e. delivery stride) to facilitate high contraction velocities of more distal smaller muscles groups ( i.e. ball release).
Determinants of ball release speed.
Numerous researchers have determined fast ball release speed with anthropometrics (Loram, Mckinon, Wormgoor, & Rogers, 2005; M. R. Portus, Sinclair, Burke, Moore, & Farhart, 2000; Pyne, Duthie, Saunders, Petersen, & Portus, 2006) run up velocity (Middleton, Mills, Elliott, & Alderson, 2016), trunk angle relative to the centre of mass (R. Ferdinands, Marshall, & Kersting, 2010; M. Portus, Mason, Elliott, Pfitzner, & Done, 2004; M. R. Portus et al., 2000) and shoulder angular displacement from front foot contact (FFC) until ball release (BR) (Glazier & Wheat, 2014). Consistent across all literature was the prevalence of the knee angle at FFC and subsequent BR (King, Worthington, & Ranson, 2016; Mukandi, Turner, Scott, & Johnstone, James, 2014; Phillips, Elissa, Portus, Marc, Davids, Keith W., Brown, Nick, & Renshaw, 2010; P. J. Worthington et al., 2013).
Amplitude and direction of movement.
Focusing on FFC and subsequent BR from the sagittal plane, one can describe ‘the amplitude and direction of movement’ which pertains to the joint range of motion and direction of these evolving patterns (Verkhoshansky & Siff, n.d.). An optimal knee angle at FFC at the point of ball release has been reported to be at 150 degrees - 186 degrees (King et al., 2016). This allows the bowler to convert linear momentum generated in the run up to angular momentum about the front foot from dorsiflexion at 4 - 26 degrees (FFC) to plantarflexion at 27 – 49 degrees (BR) with velocities reaching 1200°/s (King et al., 2016; P. J. Worthington et al., 2013). This will in turn rapidly deaccelerate the pelvis and thrust a flexed trunk at 11 degrees about the pelvis at FFC to 50 degrees at BR at greater than 7 m/s-1 (Glazier & Wheat, 2014). A flexed trunk delays arm circumduction which gives the shoulder a larger range of motion (288 – 365 degrees at FFC to 187 – 258 degrees at BR) to generate BR velocities from the shoulder up to 40 m/s at the fingers (P. Worthington, King, & Ranson, 2013). The total time taken to complete the full action from back foot contact to BR is of very short duration generally ranging from 0.20 – 0.40 sec. However, total circumduction of the arm at FFC is even shorter at 0.15 – 0.18 sec (Phillips, Elissa, Portus, Marc, Davids, Keith W., Brown, Nick, & Renshaw, 2010).
The split jerk can be characterized into 4 phases; the squat, braking, thrust and split (Grabe & Widule, 1988). The braking phases begins at maximum descending velocity and ends when velocity reaches zero at the point of maximum knee flexion relative to athlete (Grabe & Widule, 1988). Minimum knee angles during the braking phase of the descent have been reported to be between 96 – 106 degrees before initiation of the thrust phase flexes the knee further to angles of 145 - 154 degrees to initiate triple extension of the ankle knee and hip (Grabe & Widule, 1988). Once the barbell reaches its maximum height, the weightlifter ‘splits’ both legs equally to opposite diagonal sections relative to the centre of mass (Stone, Pierce, Sands, & Stone, 2006a). A desired vertical displacement of the bar up to maximum ascending velocities of 2.06 m/s is dependent on the athlete’s ability to maintain postural alignment and recruit appropriate musculature during triple extension. The total time taken from dip to the catch can take longer to complete at 1.01 sec (Grabe & Widule, 1988).
Upon analysis of the above, it is apparent that the overall kinematics of the delivery stride and split jerk differ in amplitude and direction which can be explained by the different technical rudiments undertaken to manage force in different planes of motion and muscles recruited to execute the respective skills. However, the bowler and lifter display similar ranges of motion and movement direction relative to the athlete through knee flexion at >150 degrees at FFC and extension to BR compared with >145 degrees during the jerk dip and triple extension during the drive respectively (Grabe & Widule, 1988; King et al., 2016). Upon analysis of the global frame, the joint angle of excursions for the ankle differ at the point of knee flexion and extension in both skills (Lake, Lauder, & Dyson, 2007; P. Worthington et al., 2013). As momentum generated through the run up forces the bowler’s ankle to rapidly plantarflex after heel contact, a larger plant angle at FFC may allow greater angular momentum about the front foot which can be generated into ball speed (King et al., 2016).
Nevertheless, the technical sequencing of the bowling action and split jerk rely on the recruited segments to execute these joint excursions which will largely dictate the efficient amplitude and direction of the movement (Cleather, Goodwin, & Bull, 2013b; Salter, Sinclair, & Portus, 2007). Central to this effective motor control strategy will involve an investigation into accentuated regions of force that manage the different states of performance (Verkhoshansky & Siff, n.d.).
Accentuated regions of force.
A fast bowler has been reported to experience high vertical and braking ground reaction forces at FFC with peak torques at flexion and extension at 150+/- 4.6 degrees and 117 +/- 6.3 degrees respectively (Loram et al., 2005). Peak torque angles for shoulder internal and external rotation during arm circumduction have been reported to be 11 +/- 30.3 and 4 +/- 28.3 degrees respectively (Loram et al., 2005). Comparatively lower ground reaction forces occur during the jerk with force impulse values during the braking phase reported at 96 – 106 degrees and 145 – 154 degrees during propulsion or thrust phase (Grabe & Widule, 1988). As the joint angle ranges for braking forces of the jerk occur earlier during knee flexion compared to FFC, the transfer adaptations of this exercise can potentially enable a bowler to better handle braking forces and longer times to peak force facilitated by a stiffer flexed knee and subsequent more efficient extension of >150 degrees (Middleton et al., 2016). Middleton et al. (2016), stress the need for S&C coaches to develop knee extensor strength to safely manage peak forces experienced at FFC and aid in the deacceleration of the body’s centre of mass speed about the pelvis which will in turn efficiently transfer forces to the upper limbs (R. Ferdinands et al., 2010). Therefore, to maximise ball speed and decrease risk of injury, greater knee extensor strength must be noted by a S&C coach as an accentuated region of force. However, more effective exercises for knee extensor strength such as the back squat may transfer better to this quality by virtue of greater peak forces during the specific knee joint moment (Aagaard, Simonsen, Andersen, Magnusson, & Dyhre-Poulsen, 2002), therefore the split jerk may be classed as general in this regard.
Dynamics of the effort.
The dynamics of the effort stipulate that the intensity of the training stimulus should not be less than that of the sports specific movement (Verkhoshansky & Siff, n.d.). Review of the fast bowling skill and the training modality in correspondence to the criterion thus far requires the fast bowler to experience high vertical and horizontal ground reaction forces during FFC at 5 – 9 times their own bodyweight (BW) (Johnstone et al., 2014) respectively. The split jerk handles less peak vertical ground reaction force (VGRF) at 3.5 +/- 1.2 BW during propulsion albeit for recreational weightlifters lifting 80% of 1 RM. While greater VGRF’s may be produced during FFC, how this force is expressed is dependent on external conditions (Cleather, Goodwin, & Bull, 2013a).
As Force = Mass x Acceleration and peak force production can be achieved by movement of heavy or light loads, Verkhoshansky and Siff (n.d.), stress the need to distinguish the character and duration of the exercise and sporting skill in a broader aim to quantify force production. VGRF in fast bowling can be quantified by higher impact forces of the front leg which occur very soon after FFC as a result of linear momentum generated from the run up (Hurrion, Dyson, & Hale, 2000; Lake et al., 2007). VGRF during the split jerk is applied under heavy loads and expressed by the capacity of the athlete to propel these loads quickly (John. Garhammer & Takano, 2008) therefore the strength and training effects of the separate movements can be characterized as somewhat different (Verkhoshansky & Siff, n.d.). One possible strategy to overload these high impact forces would be to introduce depth jumps as a plyometric stimulus towards the specific end of the continuum given adequate strength in the back squat (>1.5 BW) is achieved and the athlete adopts sound landing mechanics (Patel, 2014).
Nevertheless, central to the successful execution of the many biomechanical determinants of ball release speed and completion of the jerk will also depend on the athlete’s level of strength which underpins their ability to produce force rapidly (Aagaard et al., 2002). Peak torques for fast medium bowlers of 135+/-24.4Nm and 202 +/- 26.5Nm were reported during flexion and extension respectively (Loram et al., 2005). Available evidence of jerk torque comes from a world class weightlifter propelling a weight 2.1 times his bodyweight to 400Nm at the braking phase and between 550 and 560Nm at the maximum knee extensor moment albeit immediately before a patellar rupture (Zernicke, Garhammer, & Jobe, 1977). While expecting a comparatively more novice lifter to achieve this disproportionate level of intensity is clearly negligible, a more prudent approach to loading for a strong, competent lifter may provide overload for torque demands imposed by a fast-medium bowler.
Rate and time of force production.
The ability to express this torque at similar joint angles within the duration constraints of the skill is also of equal importance. Upon the onset of FFC, the rate of force is transferred rapidly through the upper extremities at 0.15 – 0.18 sec to the point of ball release (Phillips, Elissa, Portus, Marc, Davids, Keith W., Brown, Nick, & Renshaw, 2010; Stronach, Cronin, & Portus, 2014). As the onset of peak braking forces occurs immediately at FFC, by the same principle initiation of the braking phase to completion of the thrust has been reported to take 0.10 – 0.13 sec and 0.18 – 0.24 sec respectively taking total flexion and extension to longer durations of less than 0.37 sec (J. Garhammer, 1993; Grabe & Widule, 1988). Upon evaluation of the rate of force development parameters for the jerk and initiation of forces through the kinetic chain at FFC, it becomes apparent that there is a shorter period to develop higher forces during bowling compared to the Olympic lift derivative. However, when one compares the duration of the movement at the onset of braking forces at back foot contact to ball release at approximately 20 – 40 sec (Phillips, Elissa, Portus, Marc, Davids, Keith W., Brown, Nick, & Renshaw, 2010) the split jerk can potentially meet the demands for the speed of the movement. As the jerk predominantly aims to overload the triple extension pattern of the lower limb, specific strength exercises for the upper limb may include the bench press throw progressed to special strength exercise such as the seated chest med ball throw given adequate general strength foundation (Stronach et al., 2014).
Regime of muscular work.
In reference to dynamic correspondence’s regime of muscular work criterion, fast bowling is a complex intra and inter muscular activity that involves the intersegmental sequencing of the more robust proximal joints to overcome an athlete’s inertia before recruiting more distal limbs to increase the velocity of the movement in an acyclic manner (Ferdinands, 2011). According to the kinetic chain principle, proximal to distal segmental sequencing can activate the stretch shortening cycle of musculature at adjacent joints with the magnitude of pre-stretch depending on the relative angular displacement (Ferdinands, Kersting, & Marshall, 2013). As aforementioned, the jerk exercise aims to overload a specific motor action within the lower limb, specifically the rapid knee joint flexion (eccentric) and extension (concentric) at relative angular velocities (Grabe & Widule, 1988) to specific knee angle ranges at FFC for greater ball release speeds (M. Portus et al., 2004). It is understood that a heavier load in the jerk creates a greater moment at the knee over which to generate force (Cushion, Goodwin, & Cleather, 2016). It is also known that some bowlers with faster run ups, acquire greater VGRF and generate quicker release speeds (P. Worthington et al., 2013). As FFC occurs with an initially flexed knee to dissipate forces, greater VGRF at a relative knee angular displacement proposes potential for greater store and release of elastic energy of the quadricep and hip musculature over which to generate force quickly (Middleton et al., 2016). However, as joint moments operate differently by relative intensity (Cushion et al., 2016), appropriate loads can initiate temporal conditions for an optimal braking phase and thrust durations which affect store and release of elastic energy within the knee and hip musculature (J. Garhammer, 1993).
The purpose of selecting exercises is to enhance physical qualities in consideration of their dynamic correspondence to a specific sports skill (Verkhoshansky & Siff, n.d.). The selection of the most appropriate exercise to improve a sports specific skill is assessed by the biomechanical similarities which enable optimal transfer (Cushion et al., 2016). Although the split jerk is limited in targeting one specific motor control strategy within the sports skill, the quality to absorb high GRF and extend the knee rapidly upon FFC is considered a central variable for ball release speed. While it would appear from available evidence that time constraints to develop high force rate do not correspond in the criterion, higher torque values are generated at the knee during the jerk probably as a consequence of higher joint contact forces (Cleather et al., 2013a). Greater research into the kinetic analysis of FFC would need further investigating to validate a correspondence to the split jerk in this regard. Nevertheless, as the split jerk can be considered effective in overloading a peak knee moment in comparison to the ankle or hip, its correspondence may be more suitable for bowlers who may be more knee dominant in their bowling techniques (Cleather et al., 2013b). Therefore, because of the similar accentuated regions of force which require greater effort depending on load (eg 8 x BW at FFC), the split jerk can be classified as a general exercise for explosive lower limb strength for FFC of the bowling action.
References:
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Baker, D. (1996). Improving Vertical Jump Performance Through General, Special, and Specific Strength Training: A Brief Review. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. https://doi.org/10.1519/1533-4287(1996)010<0131:IVJPTG>2.3.CO;2
Cleather, D. J., Goodwin, J. E., & Bull, A. M. J. (2013a). Hip and knee joint loading during vertical jumping and push jerking. Clinical Biomechanics, 28(1), 98–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2012.10.006
Cleather, D. J., Goodwin, J. E., & Bull, A. M. J. (2013b). Intersegmental Moment Analysis Characterizes the Partial Correspondence of Jumping and Jerking. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(1), 89–100. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e31825037ee
Cushion, E. J., Goodwin, J. E., & Cleather, D. J. (2016). Relative Intensity Influences the Degree of Correspondence of Jump Squats and Push Jerks to Countermovement Jumps. J Strength Cond Res, 30(5), 1255–1264. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000001211
Ferdinands, R. E. D. (2011). Analysis of segmental kinetic energy in cricket bowling. Procedia Engineering, 13, 246–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.05.080
Ferdinands, R. E. D., Kersting, U. G., & Marshall, R. N. (2013). Kinematic and kinetic energy analysis of segmental sequencing in cricket fast bowling. Sports Technology, 6(1), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/19346182.2012.737800
Ferdinands, R., Marshall, R. N., & Kersting, U. (2010). Centre of mass kinematics of fast bowling in cricket. Sports Biomechanics / International Society of Biomechanics in Sports, 9(3), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2010.523844
Garhammer, J. (1993). A Review of Power Output Studies of Olympic and Powerlifting: Methodology, Performance Prediction, and Evaluation Tests. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research. https://doi.org/10.1519/1533-4287(1993)007<0076:AROPOS>2.3.CO;2
Garhammer, John., & Takano, B. (2008). Training for Weightlifting. Strength and Power in Sport (Second Edition), (i), 502–515. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470757215.ch25
Glazier, P. S., & Wheat, J. S. (2014). An integrated approach to the biomechanics and motor control of cricket fast bowling techniques. Sports Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-013-0098-x
Grabe, S. A., & Widule, C. J. (1988). Comparative Biomechanics of the Jerk in Olympic Weightlifting. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 59(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1988.10605466
Hurrion, P. D., Dyson, R., & Hale, T. (2000). Simultaneous measurement of back and front foot ground reaction forces during the same delivery stride of the fast-medium bowler. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18(12), 993–997. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404100446793
Johnstone, J. A., Mitchell, A. C. S., Hughes, G., Watson, T., Ford, P. A., & Garrett, A. T. (2014). The Athletic Profile of Fast Bowling in Cricket. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(5), 1465–1473. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182a20f8c
King, M. A., Worthington, P. J., & Ranson, C. A. (2016). Does maximising ball speed in cricket fast bowling necessitate higher ground reaction forces? Journal of Sports Sciences, 34(8), 707–712. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1069375
Lake, J., Lauder, M., & Dyson, R. (2007). EXPLORING THE BIOMECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WEIGHTLIFTING JERK. ISBS - Conference Proceedings Archive, 1(1).
Loram, L., Mckinon, Wormgoor, G., & Rogers. (2005). Determinants of ball release speed in schoolboy fast-medium bowlers in cricket. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 45(4).
Middleton, K. J., Mills, P. M., Elliott, B. C., & Alderson, J. A. (2016). The association between lower limb biomechanics and ball release speed in cricket fast bowlers: a comparison of high-performance and amateur competitors. Sports Biomechanics, 15(3), 357–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2016.1163413
Mukandi, I., Turner, A., Scott, P., & Johnstone, James, A. (2014). Strength and Conditioning for Cricket Fast Bowlers. Strength & Conditioning …, 36(6), 96–106.
Online, O. E. D. (2010). Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford English Dictionary, 2010(07/07), http://dictionary.oed.com/. Retrieved from http://dictionary.oed.com
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